This paper looks at the recurring security crises in Northern Mali since the independence of the country in September 1960. It is structured around three main sections.

The outbreak of the Somali civil war in 1988, the toppling of Siad Barre’s dictatorial regime in 1991, and the subsequent disbanding of the Somali National Army (SNA) created a decade-long power vacuum in Somalia.

The release of white balloons around Berlin’s perimeter served as a vivid symbol for the 25th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall -- a key moment as the Cold War came to an end.